Neonatal diseases

Neonatal diseases and congenital syndromes
Even in a complex organism like a human actually developed from a single cell of the merger of the two gamete is a known fact for a long time. However, the secrets of the formation of cell biology and molecular genetic studies, but today is a light, a learn. The most striking fact revealed by modern developmental biology of the cell is actually contained in the genome of this process is time and space, and an interpretation of the size of the main genes that control this process (for example, homeobox genes), many things, including human evolution in the organism during the same stay unchanged.

However, the structure and function of a cell should be noted that three main factors that dictate the cell's genetic makeup (genome), contains the functional proteins (proteome) and the cell in the b ar descends environment (niche) is. To give you an example, during embryogenesis, which we often touch a new case for the development of a number of signals from nearby cells (niche) target cells (stem cells), and these signals are perceived by some as a result of new genes to become active within the target cell or susturulmasıdır (genome). Naturally, these functional changes of the genome and functional proteins are synthesized by macro-molecular structures of the cell (proteome) is changing and so is composed of new tissues and organs.

As can be seen in this formation and the integration of the necessary signals to the signals as well as the appropriate response to this grant, and a harmonious working together of many genes can be sergilemesiyle. The formation of the zygote from the genes inherited from each parent and one or more defective genes in the case of any structural or functional mechanisms that disruption of the gene will be starring. This genetic abnormality affecting the cell structure or function of a vital embryogenesis, the pregnancy ends in miscarriage is likely. Should be noted that approximately 30% to 40% of eggs fertilized by normal couples, even settling into the uterus is lost in a secret low. However, that affect the development of the fetus, but a vital dimension zigottaki genetic abnormality is not a case of neonatal (congenital) will come as a disease or congenital syndrome.

Neonatal diseases and congenital syndromes, such as a single gene abnormality may occur due to genetic abnormalities that cause the disease, sometimes even many genes of a chromosome can contain all even. In addition, environmental factors (eg fetal alcohol syndrome, such as lack of folic acid), or the elements, in these cases, there might be a primary factor. In this section, the analysis indicated that genetic diseases and syndromes will be discussed and information about what are the preferred methods of genetic analysis verilecedktir. But that is not included in this section ( Lesch-Nyhan Syndrome , Phenylketonuria Disease , Charcot-Marie-Tooth syndrome , and the like) other neonatal diseases applications of molecular genetic diagnosis of congenital syndromes, and for more information, please scan indexing or direct


I - Neonatal Diseases and Congenital Syndromes in the Genet ic diagnosis :
      1)    Angelman Syndrome

      2)    , Cockayne Syndrome

      3)    Di George's Syndrome, and VCF Syndrome

      4)    Down Syndrome (and other aneuploidy syndromes)

      5)    Ellis-van Creveld Syndrome

      6)    Fragile X Syndrome

      7)    with Marfan's Syndrome

      8)    Prader-Willi Syndrome

      9)    Waardenburg's Syndrome

      10) Werner's Syndrome

      11) Williams Syndrome

      12) Zellweger Syndrome

Genetic diagnostic methods

Genetic analysis, in other words, the molecular genetic diagnosis, genetic disorders or risk factors that individuals bear the nationality individuals and / or family members provided DNA, RNA, chromosomes, proteins, or a number of the report is to be evaluated by biochemical analysis of metabolites. In this sense, according to the intended application of genetic analysis carried out in a single sample and can be composed of a single test, many specimens and can also include a series of different tests. However, high-tech and knowledge required in practice due to the accumulation of genetic testing, the analysis is strictly relevant and meaningful interpretations of the tests made in this regard requires that the original trained expert staffs.


The tests examined the nature or scope of the analysis of genetic material is divided into four groups according to the type of analysis. Direct tests , which make up the person's genetic material, DNA or RNA PCR, RFLP analysis or direct sequencing methods such as contains. Correlation tests (linkage testing), the main disease Investigation of genetic factors which make up the easier or less time-consuming, but it shows the transition known hereditary disease genes associated with the analysis of signs. Biochemical tests, metabolic disorders resulting from the diseased genes accumulated in body tissues or fluids, or the gene product of some metabolites made by qualitative or quantitative analysis to look at in terms of the proteins. cytogenetic tests that led to the genetic disease, genetic or chromosomal anomaly of chromosomes containing structural, numeric, or in terms of a partial examination of the content.

Genetic analysis of other routine laboratory tests, and contain some similar elements, these tests are different in many ways. Genetic analysis of the largest differences, such as other routine tests in the diagnosis of a case, not only the patient is still symptomatic patients with the broadest meaning of that bear has become apparent, or not come yet report is that all the hereditary diseases and risk factors. In this sense, genetic analysis for physicians to monitor patients or for individuals making personal decisions, such as having children in terms of contribution to all the other test methods provide a very, very far beyond.



The second factor that distinguishes the genetic analysis of the results of the analysis is only limited to individual patients, but also the reflection of other family members. For example, within the framework of genetic counseling is a required report of test results of genetic analysis, as well as in absolute terms about the person and their family members informed about the results obtained, if necessary, follow-up of patients, family and medical aspects of the affected individuals will be appropriate submission should also include recommendations on psychological services.

Many genetic diseases are rare, in fact than the results in terms of a definitive diagnosis can not be ignored for both individuals and families as important. Therefore, genetic analysis of the major laboratories should be experts in this area only. However, health care workers to patients and best able to provide a complete service, but genetic analysis and molecular medicine in the rapidly developing and it is possible to follow developments closely. After all, the genetic analysis to be meaningful and accurate results, sometimes more than one test is done using different methodologies, the testing of other family members or you may need to consult a medical genetics specialist subject.



For the purposes of the application of genetic analysis in humans can be divided into three main groups: 1)  Clinical genetic analysis , 2)  genetic analysis of the survey , and 3)  genetic analysis of the experimental purpose .

Clinical genetic analysis of samples collected from individual applications and / or family member follow-up of clinical aspects, diagnosis or treatment and are reported in writing to be examined. Another application of genetic analysis in clinical genotyping in clinical or forensic purposes, or paternite Maternite tests. Centers engaged in clinical testing of genetic analysis in the United States and CLIA ( Clinical Laboratory Improvement Amendments ) and comply with the terms of the CDC ( Centers for Disease Control and Prevention ) must be approved by. Although not an authority equivalent to that in our country who practice this type of centers licensed by the Ministry of Health. It is natural that a certain clinical genetic analysis is free of charge as a service purchased. However, this analysis are reported time and cost analysis, and analysis of the laboratory tests made ​​within the scope will vary according to quality and quantity. Here, in general, simple advice to consumers but not enough results or unnecessarily time-consuming tests are extremely complex avoidance extent possible.

Analysis to investigate the genetic diagnosis of pre-placed the original in other ways, from one individual or a group of individuals having similar symptoms or findings that the samples collected to better understand the medical phenomenon or a clinical genetic analysis of this method is more effective for clinical cases are reviewed to determine. Outside the scope of standard services for the genetic analysis of the survey of licensed centers and are usually financed by their own self-reports are not usually done. In case of an individual's request for the person giving the sample, however, the potential clinical significance of the results validated by standard methods if the individual is announced in an official report. In addition, for samples to be used in order to investigate the genetic analysis of individuals there can be no other demand or the result of a follow-up. On the other hand, the results of the analysis should not be exposed to third parties duyurulamaz individuals participated in the survey.



Genetic analysis of experimental tests carried out under the scientific validity as yet unproven, or for diagnosis or follow-up results of clinical cases not yet assumed the applications that focus. Enter the scope of future clinical tests of this type, such as genetic analysis also can be abandoned. Therefore, the fact that this type of test results by sending a written notification to individuals who provided the analysis is left to the discretion of the institution. However, the findings are reported by the institution or service to be covered by this type of analysis for a fee, in case the tests must be made ​​in accordance with the terms of the license

Understandably so, for research or experimental purposes rather than genetic analysis of technical service centers in producing R & D (research and development) activities carried out within the scope of projects. This rada Our first goal is to investigate the clinical introduction of genetic analysis applications, or more if desired for experimental purposes in genetic analysis. However, this type of analysis can provide opportunities for both individuals and physicians, researchers should not be overlooked in any way

Clinical in genetic

Clinical in genetic analysis and the basic applications
 G enetik tests in clinical practice all over the world are becoming more widespread and integrated in many areas. As of today the most common of these applications are mainly as follows:


1) diagnostic tests ,

2) Predictive tests ,

3) carrier testing ,

4) prenatal screening tests ,

5) embryo screening tests (emplementasyon pre-screening) ,

6) the newborn screening tests ,

7) Relationship and histocompatibility testing ,

8) genotyping ,

9) stem cell and / or DNA banking .

Diagnostic genetic tests are still being treated who are symptomatic or who have one person concerned about a genetic disorder in the primary or secondary to rule out or confirm the incelemelerdir. Diagnostic genetic tests can be applied to individuals of all ages and both are usually less risky than other alternative test methods, and is cheap and gives more accurate results. After all, the patient is a genetic disorder in the shape of the detection and treatment will change the course of the disease in favor of the patient and the physician. Moreover, these diagnostic and patient and family better understand the current situation and the nature of reference for the future will carry a gain in realistic decisions. However, in some cases, genetic tests in the diagnosis of the disease is not the first resort or the method, this method, multiple testing may be required for definitive conclusion should be taken into account.
Predictive genetic tests, family history or risk factors for a possible genetic disorder with clinical findings at the border, but the applications are still individuals who are asymptomatic. The presence of a positive test result, however, that unutulmamladır detected by the type of genetic abnormality or diagnosis of a disease presemptomatik or only a predisposing factor detection means. For example, a test result in the detection of a mutation in line with Huntington's disease, Huntington's disease, the diagnosis means presemptomatik PERSON. In other words, if these patients live long enough to start to give symptoms of Huntington's disease is an unavoidable fact. On the other hand, the nature of a risk factor for breast cancer patients, detection of a mutation in this patient indicates the presence of only a predisposing risk factor. When the formation of breast cancer in this patient is not certain though probable. If you need to make a rough generalization, multi-factorial reasons, emerging diseases, or the accumulation of multiple genetic mutations in individuals tested positive predictive test result means that the tendency of this disease is not diagnosed with the disease. This group of patients who would benefit from a maximum of people, such as risk factor modification in preventive medicine creates a personalized and effective alternative method of predictive genetic analysis of any irreplaceable location.

Predictive genetic analysis ( PGA ), early diagnosis and treatment is medically known to affect morbidity and mortality in medically indicated in all cases and especially in the secondary age group. What is more predictive of genetic analysis, and the patient followed the doctor, as well as individual health goals for the future for himself and the most appropriate patient follow-up strategy that led to the detection of a unique tool.

Difficult to analyze the results of the acceptance of some predictive genetic test can affect the eyes of individuals to life, the patient may lead to severe psychosocial complications. In such events to minimize the need to adhere to three basic principles of genetic testing centers that are: First, the person giving the sample, the test polyclinical a detailed and clearly written with the signature of the person without a permit under any circumstances should not be considered for sample predictive analysis. Second, under certain circumstances, which is symptomatic of a person close to predictive genetic testing in order to analyze the disease-specific mutation is identified, or the patient's family, such as correlation tests have shown the existence of this disease should be sought Prerequisites. Finally, remember that if you are already known to be diagnosed of the disease or treatment of any medical intervention for the benefit of patients have no means to reach this diagnosis will be very limited. Therefore, in asymptomatic individuals in the United States for the treatment of children and adult diseases are not diseases that may occur at an early age to test for the predictive ASHG ( The American Society of Human Genetics ), as prohibited in principle by the ethics committees.

Carrier testing is an autosomal recessive genetic structure of individuals, or X-linked genetic switch kromozumuna that carry the disease-causing genetic mutations in the tests carried out to investigate. As is known, this type of carrier of genetic abnormalities usually do not cause any symptoms. However, in cases of consanguineous marriages, especially in certain ethnic groups or families with a history of such a disease, and more couples to have children who think the actual detection of reproductive risk factors, but genetic testing is possible with the carrier.

Carrier testing of a baby yet to be born with serious genetic disorders of pregnancy that occur can be prevented or unnecessary fears, worries can be eliminated duplicates. The main goal of healthy families, decisions about having children but the youngster, the carrier of genetic tests, the emergence of family members to apply in order to prevent possible personal injury or social services to families, genetic counseling and education must be ide.

However, it should be noted that the same gene, particularly as a result of many different mutations can occur only in some cases, a single screening of all of these possibilities does not make sense in many ways. In such cases, the carrier-specific test method should be preferred to the patient before the family member was to perform diagnostic tests. In addition, sometimes the ideal carrier testing in terms of both cost and efficiency, not direct tests of biochemical tests (eg enzyme activity) may be.

Prenatal screening tests performed to evaluate the approach using the health status of a fetus during pregnancy. Routine prenatal screening tests may be done within the scope (for example, triple test), family history, ethnic, or environmental risk factors, such as poor obstetric history or advanced maternal age increases the risk of carrying the baby for a genetic disorder known as the reference test in all cases in the last resort may be asked to confirm the diagnosis.

Routine fetal ultrasound scans, as well as non-invasive maternal blood alpha-fetoprotein (AFP), chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) and free estriol (UE3) to looking after the triple test ( Multiple marker screening ) should be preferred. However, in cases where genetic analysis indicated the test material should be fetüsten invasive way: an early amniocentesis or chorionic villus sampling in fetuses under 15 weeks (CVS) and, in fetuses older than 12 weeks of the amniocentesis (20 weeks), placental biopsy, cordocentesis (PUBS) or with fetoskopi fetal skin biopsy material suitable for genetic analysis done may be obtained. After all, the supply of material prior to invasive prenatal genetic analysis of ways to do this supplies the center with the center contact with the sample should be adopted and planned in a coordinated manner.

All invasive fetal interventions and / or to the mother of a separate risk should not be forgotten carried. For this reason, prenatal genetic analysis indicated this issue would be permitted to be taken and analyzed after the spouses must be present in the genetic counseling service (for example , carrier testing after ) should not be forgotten. Again, as stated earlier, if possible, before some of prenatal screening tests, patients' family history family member samples to be taken d to be a diagnostic genetic testing and pre-determination of the mutation to be scanned both in an attempt to avoid unnecessary invasive to the fetus is a sure way to be elected.

After all, the prenatal screening tests in the diagnosis of genetic diseases that may arise in adulthood, in other words not suitable for predictive purposes use of the code of ethics. In such cases, to be evaluated again after the birth of the child's family or a genetic counselor should be directed to çağırılmalı
Embryo screening tests  ( PGD Preimplantation Genetic Diagnosis = ), in vitro fertilization ( IVF ) [T- up-doll ] method before leaving the womb of mother-to embryos created with the specific genetic mutations or abnormalities in terms of possible genetic tests used for screening. Usually, these tests are at high risk of having children is a serious genetic abnormality (such as a high risk of penetration of a genetic disease is present in brother and sister were born earlier), families can be recommended as an alternative to prenatal screening.

However, the high cost, limited range of applications and services of sufficient quality, the number of centers that could be very few reasons not very popular in this application. Because these tests that increase costs and create ethical problems for the first factor of the application be successful, a sufficient number of separate embryos, distinct need for testing and for this reason that the number of embryos available for implantation, which is already a small decrease of drop down chances of capturing a successful pregnancy. Therefore, unless there is a valid reason many families instead of embryo screening should be offered prenatal diagnostic tests.

Note : It is a valid medical reason for gender identification of embryos without the screening test (or prenatal testing) is clearly not ethical and is prohibited by the Ministry of Health of Turkey.

Newborn screening tests for early detection of morbidity or mortality can be lessened by the way, and that the availability of certain medical interventions for genetic diseases in order to capture the approach using a high-risk infants. Population studies indicate that the risks, some of which vary according to each new born newborn screening tests done in many countries and different states of the United States of America are required by law. This type of mandatory (or routine) tests immediately unless otherwise instructed in writing the birth parents should be applied subsequently.

Newborn screening tests for diagnosis of a disease, not requiring further investigation or the genetic analysis are made in order to identify individuals. Routine practice, especially in the family, unless she wants, what are the screening tests, or if they have negative test results may not be reported to families. For this reason, the test results of additional tests, when a written request, and if so, which makes the test center with the submitted sample. However, false-positive screening test results and family history of understanding or abstraction does not cause unnecessary concern for the parents must be informed about the subject before giving birth.

Kinship and conformance testing of tissue contrast to other genetic tests in order to determine a genetic predisposition to the disorder or disease is not diagnosed, the genetic similarity between different individuals or tests conducted to determine the differences. Common aspect of these tests is more than one sample (eg, child and alleged father, and person) at the same time they are subjected to analysis of the similarity or difference between the genetic structure of the report is to be compared. Therefore, analysis of the genetic material within the kinship tests often associated with a disease-causing genes or fragments of any disease, but often in healthy individuals in the genetic structure indicative of DNA regions known to differ. Structural variations and the variations in the incidence rates of the tested individuals, including the ethnic group known to the examination of a sufficient number of DNA between the parties, no way out of a possible genetic link genetic analysis to reach a precision that can not be displayed.

Maternity-paternity and zygosity testing is usually the reasons for the application of social nedenlerledir. However, in rare cases, some of these types of tests made on the basis of family genetic analysis may become necessary for the correct interpretation, or be affirmed. If the test is made legal reasons, to report the testing process and a special sensitivity and confidentiality is a prerequisite. Kinship legal reasons, the interpretation of tests, but that there is no certainty that a child can be compared to the person's biological children should not be forgotten. The counter-proof supply of a limited number of cared for by the analysis of genetic region is not possible.

Zygosity testing for medical indications leading to serious genetic diseases, the brothers was to determine the risk of the disease tendency. They are in separate chorionic sacs of fetuses with prenatal zygosity tests but genetic testing is indicated for edilebiliyorsa documented. It should be remembered that if the twins is in the chorionic sac, although their possible physical differences (for example, one larger than the other, and appear healthy) twins are monozygotic twins that genetic testing is not required. Postnatal zygosity tests the brothers from another medical indication in terms of potential organ or tissue transplant tespitindedir genetic proximity.

Kinship and genetic tests based on the histocompatibility testing such as comparisons of statistical analysis, the sensitivity of the test subject as the number of loci and the cost will increase correspondingly. In addition, the implementation of prenatal testing, or other factors that increase the cost of the increase in the number of individuals tested. This type of genetic analysis is usually done directly, without a medical indication, usually social or financial aspects of individual health coverage under the applicable tests should also be noted.

Genotyping of individuals to be characterized in terms of genetic structure and genetic predisposition to disease is a medical test as a multi-factorial structure to be categorized according to the type of genetic analysis applied to an individual. The goal of genetic regions that cause disease or illness directly related to the existence of fragments, including the ethnic group of individuals as a statistical risk factor for certain diseases in the affected (increase or decrease) known SNPs ( single nucleotide polymorphism ) analysis of the motives of some genetic variations such as. Typically, this analysis in order to increase the specificity and sensitivity associated with the same risk, or for different groups of patients are scanned at the same time many loci. In contrast to predictive analysis, however, the diagnosis of a disease nor a direct presemptomatik genotiplemede purpose be a predisposing factor in the detection of the disease. The objective is to make the primary purpose and genetic structure of a pre-screening individuals by looking for convenient monitoring of environmental risk factors, modification, or low or high risk for certain diseases, is to appoint one of guruplarından.

 Genotyping can be understood without a family history or genetic risk factors in terms of fully indicative of the data obtained in the absence of any other individual's genetic predisposition to the disease within the general desire for the purpose of the review and report on the most appropriate type of genetic analysis. However, genotyping can be performed on people who are still healthy, with a significant social or environmental factors that are at risk or already semptomat i k and watched, but atypical cases of the disease process or response to therapy as a first-line method of genetic analysis is extremely valuable.

Stem cell, and / or DNA banking, cell biology and molecular medicine, the rapid developments in order to be prepared for today is the most rational investment. After all, the thought into practice in recent years, different methods of treatment using stem cells, at least as fast and promising methods of gene therapy has shown an improvement. Moreover, advancing age and is known for a long time güçleşeceği supply of stem cell autograft. For such reasons, this subject is highly topical in our country started the first applications of cord blood banking style. However, genetic analysis should be noted that, without or without the DNA sample are analyzed the full content of the stem cells are stored frozen for the institution to which to store numbers that consist of only kartotekte. For this reason, here, with the DNA of stem cell banking as banking services, we'll discuss are inseparable.

DNA banking purposes disaggregated cells is stored in DNA molecules for use in advanced analysis to date. DNA in this manner can be stored for a long period of time known to a very low cost. What's more interesting clinical cases and experimental samples for DNA analysis have been supplying some of the fatal patients and their families bankalanması diagnostic or prognostic genetic tests to shed light on the future currency will gain a unique archive is also a fact that nature.

However, the scope of stem cell and DNA banking services, and service is of the essence in exchange for the mutual rights and demands a very clear written documentation must be completed. DNA banking, especially for some of the centers that offer this service for one-time charge in a single center, while most of the regular storage fees for an initial fee and subsequent attempt to actually remember.

Gene Map

Human gene map project to the finish line geldi.Bu project cost of $ 250 million of the most expensive so far, the most comprehensive scientific study. Supporters of the research, as a result of removing all of the map, as well as the extension of life expectancy, cancer in the solution of the problem of baldness, depression, until bunamadan fundamental changes in the treatment of many diseases and definitions of different heights could reach out and anticipate the concept of fate. Those who oppose the privacy setting to end human life, work and work will start in his life concerned that genetic racism. The only thing that is certain in these days of the project to be completed, the finish line to take on the work of the most yarayacağıdır biotech industry.


Five laboratory officials working in the field of human genes to be deciphered, until the last day as a routine every Friday morning at 11.00 by telephoning each other, giving information about the developments. 3.2 billion human DNA molecule in the middle of March, two billion of the chemical dolayındaki read condition. In other words, approximately two-thirds of the study was over. Over 1,100 people (computer experts, biologists and technicians in a professional army consisting of) working on the project began three years ago. Six countries, six in the laboratory on a large part of ongoing studies funded by the U.S. government and the British Wellcome Trust. Close interest in this topic and to confront the state and the speed of the race before the finish line artırınca shield the private sector, private sector, public officials who feel the breath of his neck, twenty-four hours a day, seven days a week working up to twelve thousand cellular molecule has reached the speed of reading. And about 90 percent of the current map in June, 99.9 percent of the 'hood accuracy was announced.
Now, the basic laws of human life to be determined; Homo sapien, the secret source of life, will be the light of day. Described as a result of information, 98% of human genes show similarities şempanzeyle, material world is the last link in evolution of man as a result of a particular model of evolution to this point and logical reasons that the show is based on.
Biologist Walter Gilbert of Harvard University, speaks about the project as follows:''the human being so understood what it meant.''
This information will create a revolution in medicine, such as stock market favorites among the biotech industry to spawn.
Apple in 1977 as the first home computer out of the market when, after years of no one predicted the Internet would not enter into our life, so. Similarly, the emergence of the entire human genome and human identity and how they affect our lives very difficult to estimate right away. However, in terms of diagnosis and treatment, doctors will have the great source of information. For example, the information registered on a biyoçipin, elderly people, prostate cancer, Alzheimer'a yakalanmayacağımızı caught the disease by type of drug will be responding to what our bodies can learn. Scientists have a wound healing, the growth of baby's organs, hair loss, look at the sides of the case kırışması learn which genes entered into. Thus, these genes will increase the possibility of intervention or action taken will provide the treatment. Dolls, sperm and eggs can be designed before they met. Employers, employees will elect the man while the genetic structure of the genetic structure of the business people who will not ratify. Officials from the Sanger Centre near Cambridge, John Sulston, said:''next ten years, a hundred years, or even a thousand years of human gene map will form the basis of biology.''
Gene map of the form of''genes''ATGCCGCGGCTCCTCC, described the arrival of the letters side by side. Each letter, adenine (Adenine), Sito (Cytosine), guanine (Guanine), thymine (Thymine) represents such a molecule. Muscles of the skin, liver, lungs, the human body every cell carries a copy of the same DNA. Creates a total genome DNA in the cells of a living species. Genetic Age''as''isimlendirebileceğimiz era, homoseksüalite, risk-taking, shyness, anxiety, cancer, Alzheimer's disease, and personality traits, such as the detection of a gene for each of the special, but the actual existence of a gene proteins that cause. A's, T's, Os and creates G'ler code. Tripartite teams in each case, a special mechanism within the cell leads to capture a specific amino acid. For example, TGG, is to catch the amino acid called tryptophan. Sufficient amounts of amino acids bring them side by side, you get protein (stomach enzymes to digest food, korbonhidratları to metabolize insulin, leading to depression of brain chemicals, such as sex hormones started adolescence). In this case, as a regulation of genes. The difference is, on the basis of molecular-write the instructions here. Eighty thousand is the average gene in humans and the similarities between us, the ratio of 99.9 percent. This also means that thousands of chemical letters in one of Woody Allen 's Bruce Willis' creates a skin that separates the genome.
More complete, though, the architects of the Human Gene Map Project, out of the forefront of biology, other disciplines would be in shoe Checkers argues. Unwanted child is the beginning of the project, then the Department of Energy officials, Charles De Lisi 's efforts slowly began to take shape. At first strongly criticized the study, biologists, ninety-seven percent of the human gene map saptanamayacağını claimed individually. What was the meaning of this''waste''of DNA analysis? Especially what's garbage, what distinguish between genes that varamadıktan then what good would remove the human gene map? However, after lengthy discussions, the U.S. Congress sağlanınca financial resources, scientists presumed to be completed in 2005, the foundation of the project have posted in 1988. In the meantime, May 1988, the gene hunter J. Craig Venter, Celera, called the private company argued that by establishing a human gene map will complete within three years. This initiative, Francis Collins, head of the American Institute of Human Gene Map 'I warned that the path should hold in your hand quickly. They should be in the middle of the project, have completed three percent of people yıldırmadı Collins, on the contrary, has triggered. Stages of control over the elements and evidence oyalanmamaları warned. In October of 1998, outline the project in 2001, indicating tamamlayacaklarını Collins, in the coming spring months of March 1999, it drew on.
Completion of the human gene map what does it mean? MIT (Massachusetts Institute of Technology), Eric Lander of the Whitehead Institute, the periodic table of elements, likens this work was prepared at the end of the 1800s. Genomics'', I think the periodic table of biology''said Lander, scientists announce all the events with the help of this list suggests. This list fits on a CD-ROM. Currently, DNA samples of patients, scientists, fluorescent molecules on a chip tied serpiştiriyor example glass. Glass chip gene is known to over ten thousand pieces. The laser beam reads the fluorescence of the chip samples taken from patients, which appears to be on the known genes. In recent months, with the help of this method muscle tumors of different types of leukemia, which is a lethal type of prostate cancer, from brain neurons is depressed and normal brain, it may be possible to identify the difference between the neuron.
The history of mankind, DNA registered. Followed by migration of DNA by detecting differences in the way''to determine the possible Lander,''she speaks,''the scientists, the former Phoenician traders left behind when they visit the Italian ports of chromosomes recognize''he said. Similarly, genetic data, Lembaların living in South Africa, the Middle East 2,700 years ago, the thesis that supports children of the people of the Jewish immigrant. Connaught at 98 per cent of the Irish living in Ireland for four thousand years ago, hunter-gatherer communities settled in this way was the catalyst for coming.

Ethical concerns
To decipher the book of life, unfortunately, brings about moral issues. Genetic understanding of our codes, also strengthens the possibility of shaping the human species by human hands. Biologists prepare a list of spare parts by using genomic science, I treat parent candidates''unborn children'', the scientists of their information, the desired characteristics, body structure and cognitive ability can produce people.
This situation also brings many problems in practice. Easier to change ourselves and our children, the reduction in tolerance to accept those changes can be undergone. Lori Andrews, Department of Law, University of Kent, "with the help of genetic tests, intelligence failures, obesity, short neck (and other undesirable characteristics) to know in advance if the societies, the mother and father by the birth defects is allowed to start to see small children?" Asks the question. Already, some doctors and nurses, defects can be diagnosed before birth mothers and fathers of children born, what they bring to the world for their children is that they will be criticized and even seems to condemn. Assuming that all parents of prospective children ısmarladığını in the world, what a combination thereof, such as occurs in a world already knows. In the meantime, the body resistance against disease provided by some other known disease genes. For example, the type of anemia known as sickle cell anemia, malaria is the resistance. In this case, no anemia gene to eliminate the malaria epidemic is causing? Extend this question further,''bad''to knock out genes, evolution, how does it affect? Here is one of the most important issues to be dealt with.

Problems in the implementation phase
Genome project and human resources, insurance companies are beginning to use genetic information against people's concerns in line climbs steadily. Assume that the great dangers on the horizon of public research is systematic, the rumors are not able to get the front. Many people carry a gene for a deadly disease can be excommunicated by the insurance companies. Another person, disposable work for the same reason by the employer. Thirty-nine state of the United States on the basis of genetic tests now to arrange the insurance policy, according to the results of genetic testing on the five states are banned from work stickers. However, employers and insurers, the legislation vulnerabilities exploited, genetic tests continues to secretly investigate. In 1999, according to a study in the United States thirty percent of middle and small sized companies, promoted and dismissed the employees stickers benefits from genetic testing.
Completion of the Human Genome Project will bring another problem people. People learn the functionality of genes, now what to think about themselves? Most likely the beginning of the crime of the genes will install all the negativity. In humans, saying that a greater tendency towards fatalism Collins,''this is the genome project will provide kolaycılığı. Genes to be installed as a scapegoat''he says.
At present stage of genomic science nativity. Curtain time completely disappeared, with what our children will face bilinmiyor.Bugün mystical circles yet even in the face of developments in the gene can not conceal his astonishment. Nonetheless, the gene for the subject to be monitored carefully.

What is RNA, DNA

What is RNA, DNA

DNA deoxy nucleic Ribbon Acid by a kind of Molecule abbreviated group isimidir DNAOf the double-stranded DNA chain is very long rope ladder benzemektedir.Çift zincirdir.Bu chain-chain structure in the cell special Enzymes and Protein through with packed.

•Double nucleotide array consists of (a spiral ladder as), And together the two series of weak Hydrogen are connected by bonds. Between adenine and thymine 2, guanine and cytosine are hydrogen bonds between the 3.
•Self-spouses (as semi-conservative) and provides inheritance.
•Each nucleotide Phosphate, Deoxyribose and Nitrogenous consists of organic bases.
•The amount is equal to the total amount of purine primidin Total (A + G = T + C). The amount of adenine thymine (A = T), the amount of guanine cytosine (G = C) are equal.
•Guanine, cytosine and adenine with thymine makes co. (~ Primidin with purine)


DNA Mapping (synthesis)
DNA Synthesis of the interphase chromosomes before cell division occurs in stages disappear on and on.
DNA self eşleyeceği time weak hydrogen bonds in the middle zipper as opens. Cell more prepared before the free nucleotides, in the face of the drop-down yarns appropriate settled areas. This TTP nucleotides, such as GTP energy nükleotidlerdir. Two high-energy phosphate bond is dissolved. Monofosfatlı nucleotides are placed in appropriate places with Dropped energy. DNA synthesis requires energy expenditure a event.
DNA belonging to a thread new of mold is to form the yarn is called Semi-Protected Mapping.

Ribonucleic acid (RNA)
Occurring in connection with single-stranded RNA nucleic ribonukleotitlerinbirbirlerine Acids. When compared to the lengths of DNA molecules more short. Almost all the cells are located in abundance. Both have prokaryotic RNA in eukaryotic cells are usually found in three main classes. These mesencır RNA (mRNA), ribosomal RNA (rRNA) and transfer RNA (tRNA) is. All single-stranded RNAs special a base sequence, a characteristic molecular weight and a specific biological function to fulfill.

MESENCIR RNA (mRNA)
The genetic information stored in DNA, Protein served as a means of transferring the structure of moldings a molecule. mRNA, ribosomes and DNA, the genetic clings to password sentezlenecek Protein the amino acid sequence has been determined. Each mRNA molecule, a specific region of DNA called a gene located on the show with the komplementerlik. About 10,000 in a single eukaryotic cell different mRNA Molecule and each of them are contained in one or more sentezlemektedir more polypeptide chains.

Transfer RNA (tRNA)
also occurred with tRNA'lar be polymerized ribonucleotide, very curves showing the single-chain structure a RNA variety. tRNA'lar clover-like leaves three dimensional shows a double-stranded structures in place. In the chain area The number of ribonucleotide between 70 and 99, molecular weight between the 23,000 dalton ile30.000. Each of the 20 amino acids in nature for There are at least one tRNA molecule. by acting as an adapter, the amino acid tRNA'lar tie up the ends of the ribosome attached to mRNA carries kodono Dizer polypeptide chain. tRNA'lar three bases called anticodon ends occurring again with the codon on the mRNA called the transient binding to the region of amino Acids According to the password on the mRNA right provides a way dizilmelerini.

Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
RNAs, ribosomes and the main structural Element constitute approximately 65% ​​of the weight of the ribosome. 3 types of prokaryotic cells, eukaryotic cells are the 4 types of rRNA. Ribosomal RNA structure and function of ribosomes important rpller play.
In addition to these two kinds of eukaryotic cells RNA more There. The first of these heterogeneous nuclear RNA (HnRNA) tant issue. They are synthesized in eukaryotic cells and the mRNA precursor molecules do not undergo the process. Secondly, small nuclear (snRNA) is the precursor mRNA molecules, and still emerge during the process suffers.

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)

Genetics, molecular-level events in the cell genetic material serves as the foundation of nucleic acids structure based on their characteristics. The two types of nucleic acids deoxyribonucleic acid and ribonucleic acid, RNA, DNA is basically the same structural features.

Genes DNA some of the chemical sequences occurred in the nucleotides. The majority are found in chromosomes. In addition, the DNA molecule in prokaryotes (bacteria) non-chromosomal genetic system, The plasmids, eukaryotic cells, chromosomes of genetic material (nucleus) is basically out of (animal and plants) and mitochondria (only Plants and algae) known to contain chloroplasts.

1953 in Watson and Crick of the DNA molecule has its own unique characteristics a double helix structure argued that in case. The researchers suggested that the DNA structure at the DNA introduced by other researchers on important based on the findings. One of them, by Wilkins and Franklin, isolated the DNA fiber X-ray beams to describe refractive properties. The resulting X-ray photographs, regardless of the order of arrangement of the bases of DNA chains, very transformations show that a molecule makes a regular basis. In addition, TMV (Tobacco Mosaic Virus) Studies on the DNA in the study of light kept.

A other important discovery was found by Chargaff. Any a species DNA the amount of adenine nucleotides released nükleotidlerine crashed thymine, guanine or cytosine is always equal to the amount that was to determine the .. In other words, according to Chargaff Rule natural Adeniyi thymine or cytosine guanine ratio of DNA molecules is always equal to 1. (A / T = 1 and G / C = 1).

Here are the findings of Watson and Crick, by evaluating such features DNA of the secondary structure of macro-molecule a model developed. According to this model, a very disclosure of the issue due to be done, these two scientists the Nobel Prize was awarded in 1962.

According to this model
DNA molecule, the helix (= helical) coiled in the form of two arms ladder shape. Arms, ie, the edges of the ladder, sugar (deoxyribose) and phosphate molecules form the. Deoxyribose and phosphate groups, ester bonds each other connected. There is a random sorting steps between the two arms; always guanine (G), cytosine (C or S), adenine (A), Timin'in (T) against the income

Both purine (ie, adenine and guanine) and pyrimidine (ie, thymine and cytosine) between the hydrogen bonds, and at other bonds, occurring heliksin ensures smooth. Purine and pyrimidine bases, the adjacent sugars (ribose), glikozidik linked bonds. The base, the combination of sugar and phosphate, the basic units of the core nucleotides gave rise to acids. There are four kinds of nucleotides. They are named according to the personal bases (adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine).

DNA molecule depending on the number of nucleotides that comprise them, changing the size of such species, in the form of long-chain a structure shows. In humans, when the chain length of 2 meters until can reach. Synthesis of sensitive and fragile nature of the chain as a whole because of very difficult.

Two polynucleotide chain sugar phosphate backbone, common a and right direction around the axis of equal diameter right bring about transformations. Backbone of the molecule is located in the inner part of the bases of nucleotides. 90 degrees to the axis of the helix positions Bases Angle situated to make. 3.4 A distance between adjacent base pairs anniversary roll. In addition, each 36 degrees to its neighbor base pair is located. Accordingly, a full 360 degrees about 10 base pairs tamamlayacağından anniversary, each anniversary size 34A roll.

Polynucleotide chain hydrogen bonds with the two nucleotides bound to each other mutually. This bond phosphorus bonds until not strong for pH change, Temperature Pressure as factors can easily be separated from each other. DNA of own make a copy of the gene expression, takes place with separation of hydrogen bonding between nucleotides.

Nucleotides each other phosphate bonds, connecting to a backbone consisting of sugar and phosphate parts of the series have followed each other in a long and gave rise to the branched polynucleotide chains. Covalent bonds, also known as ester bonds or phosphodiester bonds very strong. The presence of phosphodiester bonds DNA single-stranded molecule structure Even while in resistant and ensures a stable structure. One of the goals of genetic engineering and cloning of the studies, natural way, the realization of possible performing non-covalent bond breakage new species include creation efforts.

Structure of nucleotides Alkaline Although oımurgadaki PO4 (phosphoric acid) group of polynucleotide chains in the presence of acid properties they are way The term nucleic acid also caused by this feature on and off.

Hydrogen bonds are always a purine (A, G) and a pyrimidine (T, C) occurs in some of. AT base pairs, two hydrogen bonds, is only 3 hydrogen bonds between GC base pairs are available. Privatization of hydrogen bonds; Key reminiscent of the lock modelinini, appropriate nucleotide molecules to each other mutually came to be connected again with the appropriate number of hydrogen bonds. Thus, an arm of the chain of nucleotides in the sequence, the sequence of nucleotides in a kind of arms against the dictates and controls. Leave no chance of a meticulously created and is controlled by molecular structure.

DNA The molecule important feature is that two polynucleotide chain complementary to each other. Positive (+) And Negative (-) Two polynucleotide chains feature of complementarity, the functions of genetic material right can do, in terms of how to explain DNA'S is one of the most important basic features.

DNA double helix into Value and important a property, forming chains of molecules can be separated from each other easily and re-birleşebilmesidir. Protein synthesis and DNA replication (to form their own copy of) this feature could result. DNAOf the two-chain H bonds and hydrophobic interactions with each other just because they are connected to with covalent bond between the nucleotides can be resolved without any break (denaturation). H bonds between complementary bases solved the same way, the molecule chains combined with the formation of spiral structure, re-create (renatürasyon).

Nucleotides due to rupture of ties between the phosphorus or the nucleotide sequence of nucleotides, rather than go through another nucleotide mutations way açar.Bu mutations, single-stranded RNA Molecule The probability of double-stranded DNA by molecule more fazladır.Mutasyonların consequences can be fatal. Evolutionary development negative or positive effects of mutations that can not be ignored in point. Today, at the beginning of viral diseases of AIDS in front of the most valid reason for geçilememesinin single-stranded genome RNA mutations of the virus through continuous self-renewal can be shown continuously ..

Deoxyribonucleic acid DNA All over the world Live determining the outstanding features of organisms a chemical Articledir.Bir Tree the color of the leaves, the size of a wolf dişlerininin less, or the length of a giraffe Foot the shape of fingers DNA determines.

DNA chromosomes in cell nuclei in all oluşturur.Her a kromozonda, a single, long DNA There molecule.

A DNA single molecule of human a hair fiber a thousand times more hundreds of small-volume, although it is Encyclopedia One contains the information .. DNA molecule containing a specific genetic trait is called a cross-section GEN.

DNA a carries information about the formation organzimanın DNA molecules are found in the cell nucleus and contains the information coded in our body during the formation of all the proteins DNAOf the process of making proteins, are incredibly precise.

DNA twisted molecule a benzer.Her the ladder of a cell DNA genes from both mother and father içerir.Merdivenin ladder steps, thymine (T), adenine (A), cytosine (C), and guanine (G), called bases perfect oluşur.Her regulation of the completion of a phase for a base pair, a particular combination matches. T all the time with A, G A also matches all the time. In contrast, C always with G and G with C matches all the time. THIS match, DNAOf the self-copy operation important play a role.

When the copying process DNA strings are solved and the base pairs each other separated. At this stage, Molecular, benzer.Daha a Zipper is gaping After freely in the thymine (T), adenine (A), guanine (G) and cytosine (C), containing the nucleotides in the array participate eşeleşmemiş bases. T'lerle A's in the Free state, in the free state T'lerle A 's eşleşir.Aynı G'ler C'lerle in the case serbast, and Os G'lerle matches.

Unmatched array Molecules each oneOnly matches certain bases for DNA own excellent üretebilir.Böylece a copy of the old one DNA molecule at the location of a short period identical in the two DNA molecule occurs.

DNA'Copies of the information contained in this way, while a bölününebilir cell of an organism and the information from generation to generation about how oluşacağı past happens.

Genes covered

In 1953, Watson and Crick double-stranded DNA molecule with very specific characteristics and have demonstrated that the model of the spiral structure. Genetic basis of micro-level events in the cell, genetic material is installed as nucleic acids based on the structure and properties. Two types of nucleic acids DNA and RNA, which has the same primary features. This is basically the four nucleotides and chemical unit is the building block molecules (abbreviated A, T, C, G) will follow a general sequence consisted of genes arranged in a consecutive manner.In nature, millions of species diversity, the diversity of human characters in the different combinations of these 4 types of nucleotide sequence with the genetic code occurs. Through the necessary order of genes on the DNA molecule, but a tool assembly of protein synthesis (ribosomes) forwards. RNA molecule of this tool. Expression occurs as a result of DNA to make RNA molecules.Here is everything that a mysterious message that carries the DNA molekülümüzün reserved. Today, he described the human genome and 23 chromosomes, which are spread in this article, ie, biological alınyazımız consists of about three billion letters.Genome, called gene consists of blocks of genetic information and the estimated number of genes in the human genome is about 80 thousand. In other words, all the phases of man from birth to death, and about three billion letters of genetic computer program, a huge reserve of 80 thousand genes. Based on computer Allegory Genetics, genes each in a separate software program (drawing, imaging or audio software, etc..) Get treated as. This software uses when it is needed time and space and which can be selected depending on the information. Picture of the history of mankind by 200 million years of continuous migrations, wars, türemelerle extinctions and re-blended the residue of kinship still remains hidden in our genes. Some of our consciousness is a part of creating a parasite that can be built upon the foundations to create the gene pool.DNA molecules in human cells, is not naked in no time. Always combined with proteins and these proteins (histone proteins), unsurlarıdır.Uzun continuous years of double-stranded DNA molecule of these proteins, only a very long lengths of the DNA molecule (in humans, this 2-meters), has undertaken the task of packing into the micron-sized cell is considered. It is packed structures called chromosomes. Later, it was understood they are functional proteins in the regulation of DNA information.Chromosomes, DNA and associated proteins, DNA, RNA was baskıladıkları ability to function as molds. That the gene is active or inactive, ie, specific nucleotides (adenine and thymine nucleotides in particular) that describes the protein molecules on the settlers. Genes in gene expression that do cover these proteins and thus prevents the gene product, the feature that unit çıkamamaktadır disclosure. A human liver cells and brain cell genome is the same. At the beginning of the development of ODD hücre'nin (zygote) to take on different functions under different programs multiply, bring out the different functions of proteins, genes, genomes, "on-off" process to accomplish with the cells is the result of textural specializations.However, the human genome programs are not produced in series between each of the genes a little-seen few changes. Even observable differences in behavior between brothers under the form and lies in this little-few changes. These changes, mutations and homologous chromosomes from the mother and father to track the changes that occur in the arms with (crossing-over) occurs. Determining the nucleotide at about the effects of changes in the genetic codes in that unit, sometimes immediately and sometimes after a few generations can be seen. Crossing-over tracks with the changes that occur with the recombinant (re-edited) consists of DNA molecules. Thus, diversity is revealed. As a result, a zygote, and caused the cells to carry all the genetic information in combination with genetic information that a large portion of development closer to the end of the shut down (been making business soon) see. This closure was done by histones advocated since 1950.

Smart Gene

Smart DNA is inherited intelligence tutuyor.İnsan how light passes through much of intelligence is determined by inherited much of the discussion of all the severity of environmental conditions while escaping to a small spot review so far no genes affecting intelligence (intelligence back to the gene causing the exception), yet was not found. Your head, Robert Plomin Institute of Psychiatry in London in a group of researchers led by the arms scrambled to find the gene responsible for intelligence. Children began to work smarter. According to the''smart gen''in address Plomin'e intelligent children. They used this method to select the smart kids: age Several students spent their university entrance exam. Examined the DNA of the high points in the test areas. And they are pursuing at the end of this study were able to detect traces of the gene.


Living in a residential area of ​​Cleveland dolaylarındaki 6 and 51 children ranging from ages 6 to 15 blood samples were collected. One group was calculated as the average IQ 136. Other groups, the average IQ was 103. All children were white. Separation of blood cells, the scientists looked at the children one by one chromosome number 6. One of the 37 genes on chromosome number 6 in different: the gene, called IGF2R IQ'lu group of high percentage of children seen in children than in normal IQ'lu two misliydi (16 per cent against 32 per cent). Research report published by the magazine in the May issue of Psychological Science in the shape of the IGF2R gene and on behalf of a gene called''5''allele was responsible for intelligence.

Plomin, however, this gene is remarkable that there is a''high''intelligence genes. This means that the gene is only an extra four IQ points. And in this gene is not enough to make a man gifted: The average IQ of this gene, while 23 percent of children with this gene has 54 percent of gifted children.

Insulinlike growth factor receptor-2 gene''Smart Insulin-like growth factor 2 receptor IGF2R-known by the name''. This gene is of great similarities with the insulin gene. Hormone in some cases, when an ordinary dock to a cell of the cell to commit suicide in some cases lead to cell growth. These two activities are normally followed during the development of the brain response. Insulin receptors in the brains of a mouse learning and memory regions covered by the National Health Institute, scientists realized that they concluded that insulin accelerates the growth of nerves.

This result supports the thesis that IGF2R'in brain and therefore affect intelligence, some geneticists kuşkulular for the accuracy of the results of the IQ-gene research. Plomin'in group of genes found in the academic aspects smart idea that a gene commonly found in children who are successful in claiming the group's spokesman at Johns Hopkins University Andrew Feinberg skeptical of ethnic differences in the gene they found''not originate Who knows?''He asks. On the other hand, Neil Risch of Stanford University said Plomin'in the opinions expressed in this research:''If I rastlantılara Plomin'in based on research. Find a gene on chromosome 37 by removing a gene from the gene it is wise not based on a scientific basis to claim that. For example, several studies of various personality traits such as schizophrenia, gene, genes involved in gene found curiosity. However, these studies did not achieve the same results repeated. This research zedeliyor credibility.''

Scientists to accept the claim that the IGF2R gene affects intelligence is not enough to solve the problem. Now we are being taken out a new question: how IGF2R affect intelligence? Intelligence is a very complex phenomenon that makes the problem even more complicated. An official from the National Health Institute,''a fact that healthy children perform better in school. Therefore, this gene may be considered to be effective, but if the child receives adequate food''he said. Cornell University psychologist Stephen Ceci of genes working in a vacuum,''said To answer this question before the need to clarify any further questions. Reveal how environmental conditions affected the genes that affect intelligence is a prerequisite. For example, the mother's diet during pregnancy can significantly affect even the intelligence''he says.

Plomin gene related to IQ in the meantime two more studied chromosome. To explain the results obtained from these plans in October. In the meantime, all the features to mental and physical DNA determines how a belief in the interaction with the environment in the finalization of the gene for the intelligent need to clarify that. In the meantime, the next two months, a physiologist in the IGF2R gene, a prenatal test and contribute to the designing work.

Genetic Evolution

Watson-Crick model, genetic information, nucleotides in the ranking is determined in a certain order in a generic way, and explains dölden offspring inherited this way. Such self özgüözellikleri species is determined by its genetic structure of the protein and enzyme molecules are released Upon synthesis.

Genes on DNA, protein synthesis necessary orders, but through an intermediary molecule transmit setup. RNA molecule of this tool. Protein chain of each amino acid to be placed instead of a base group of RNA on the 3-encrypted. This 3-structure codon call. Only 4 kinds of nucleotides ( A, C, G, T ) is to organize 20 or more amino acids, nucleotides, composed of one or two codons = Stay ıplar will not be enough. Because the two would come in 4 kinds of nucleotides that the combination would give 16 types according to the 16 kinds of amino acids in the protein chain yöneltebilirdi instead. However, organisms are more than 16 kinds of amino acids. Composed of three nucleotides for each amino acid TRlPLET '= three bases , 4-nucleotide If we take into account gives you 64 kinds of combination. This is more than we need for the cell provides a code series. In fact, some have degenerated, and 6 different triplet codes that are specialized to the same amino acid
For example, this is as lösinde situation. However, each synonymous codon of amino acid insertion into the activity of proteins are different. In fact, three letters at the beginning of life is possible despite the use of binary code, and in this case, at that time, only 16 kinds of amino acid used.


2. At B

1. Base

u

c

A

G

U

Science (Phe)

Ser.

Term.

Sys. (Cys)

C

Los. (Leu)

Pro.

His.

Arg.

A

trace. loess. (With)

Thr.

Lis. (Lys)

Asp.

G

Val.

Ala.

Glu.

Glis. (Put)

Bilateral triple case letters can be lethal to beat. For this reason, three letters initially, but bilateral cooperation and codon used. Initially, two-letter coded amino acids encoded two letters still continues today. Asparaginin has been in place only code changes. In the past, detecting asparagini AGX (X, any base) today, serine and arginine also identifies.
Most likely, some amino acids, such as trp or met the first (prebiotic) living environments are not available. Evolutionary steps of a total of five amino acids with other amino acids were **** bolize. They are:
• -------> Asp Asn (N = Asp)
-------^ Glu Gln (= GluN)
Fog (= Cys Met )---»-.
Trp Ser --------*».
Science (= Phe) -> - Tractor (= Tyr)
The remaining 15 amino acids present in the environment, and therefore the two-letter code that was enough.
Then go to the amino acid codons causing variations increases, the trio was born requirement. This is a hereditary evrimdi structure. But for many kinds of amino acid (usually found before the evolution of amino acid variants) triplet two-letter code from the beginning and the last letter is sufficient, no matter what the privatization of the amino acid change. This shows us once used the two-letter codons. Some codons to give the password, not just used to mark the commencement and completion of protein synthesis. Genetic code was universal. Viruses to human studies with the same bases in the same order (as DNA and RNA), that is, all organisms have the same codons causing the same amino acid is specialization.
Code size and the amount of information carried by an organism's genetic material can be estimated length of, for example, bestowed the length of the entire genome of about 92 cm. more is learned before. This is approximately 3 x 109 nucleotide pairs, and therefore is equivalent to 109 codons causing. Medium-sized protein, made up of 150 amino acids, according to a normal human cell has a capacity of about 6 × 106 different protein kodlayabilecek.

Genome Project

Science world  life in a new development that will upset the people human DNA by signing was able to decrypt. Issued by "gene map" vanish due to heart disease and cancer, and human life increase the quality WILL LIVE LONGER. A new milestone in the history of science is development, scientists are working on for almost ten years  biochemical changes in human genes were obtained by dissolving the password.


U.S. President Bill Clinton and British Prime Minister Tony Blair, they  carried out a joint statement that the human genetic map to be resolved Announced the completion of the first phase of the Human Genome''Projesi''nin. Upon deciphering Alzheimer until cancer genes so far başedilemeyen will cure many diseases. Quality of life  will increase the human life WILL LIVE LONGER.
U.S. President Bill Clinton, as a result of international studies of people   revealing the map of genes, the largest in history   One of the inventions, describing it as "God's life    created by the language we learn today, "he said.
Clinton, in his speech, the removal of genes that map, a large   Italian mathematician, astronomer and physicist Galileo Galilei inventions    stating that it has equal importance, this discovery of cancer, diabetes,  Opened a new era in the treatment of Parkinson's and Alzheimer's disease    told. Human gene map of the removal,       the discovery of antibiotics is a greater success   explaining, "This is the first giant of the 21st century technological  victory, "he said. Gene map revealing, especially the American, British, Long-term studies of German and Japanese scientific institutions   was achieved as a result. The French and Chinese scientists in this study       contributed.Everything in 1953, two scientists a kind of living cell       began his discovery of the DNA genetic code. British scientists       Francis Crick and American colleague James Watson, Discovery of DNA,''they said they found the secret of life''. Everyone was looking at them with suspicion, but were right a hundred percent. Cell   DNA in the nucleus of a human eye color, skin color, body       to determine various physical properties of the longitudinal nature of the       In addition, an important role in health and life expectancy  playing.

What is the Human Genome Project

Project is supported by 18 countries, of 1990       began in October. The aim of the project is the human gene map, ie       genetic decrypt.

What is a gene map

Every human has trillions of cells. Cell In the core of human physical and health status determines the       chromosomes, chromosomes, have the DNA. This genetic code''science''  it said.

What does DNA

Rotating on its axis and ropes connected to   mother and father received a suspended ladder-like DNA helix 23'er       has a chromosome. Approximately 100 thousand genes carried by chromosomes,       Is located on the DNA helix. Genes are a small portion of DNA       form.

What does Genes

Genes of human hair color, height, number captured a person's life up to foot diseases   determining the chemical substance that allows the secretion of proteins.

How much of the complete genome

Until now deciphered 99 percent of the DNA   was. But until now it's just 21.1 percent of the 's of how it works   resolved. Percentage 65.7 percent even though the crude. In this section, the remaining sub-units of DNA    is to completely decipher all genes and sequencing in 2003   expected to be completed.

How this discovery will help our business

Diagnosis and treatment of diseases   easier. Diabetes, heart, cancer, such as the death of millions of people each year   causing preventable diseases can be diagnosed very early on.

What is gene therapy

Disease-causing mutant   Trying prevented disease gene was restored. Correct gene sağlıklısı instead of being injected. With Human Genome Project, researchers  until now, Alzheimer's, hereditary breast cancer such as bowel and  are important genetic information about disease.

Why is the genetic maps of animals Extracting

The operation of mouse and fruit fly genetics    There are many similarities between insanınki. Their genetic structure    to decipher, to facilitate human understanding.

Of Health to work out what the gene map    will help
Gene  map, biyoarkeoloji, anthropology, evolution and historical migration process     facilitate understanding. In this way, when people,  migration from that, who can learn that we are relatives.

Genetics Dictionary
Genetic code: Cell nucleus   chemical formula is written. Dioksiribo Nucleic Acid (DNA), called   This code consists of phosphate and sugar. Except for identical twins  2 million people likely to have the same password in two genetic  one.

Gene: Greek birth or the beginning   means' coming genos'tan. Life in the genes that determine the DNA       helix is ​​located. However, genes of DNA is 2% to 4%.  The rest of the 'free' DNA is called. Between 28 thousand and 140 gene is believed to be.

Chromosome: In humans, the genes carrying       There are 23 pairs of chromosomes. From mother to child during Fertilization 23       chromosomes, 23 chromosomes from the father is. Fertilization occurs in the XX       gender of the baby girl, when the male is XY. Chromosomes       added to each strip consists of 160 billion miles.

DNA sequence: DNA microscope       shows up in under four. These are A, T, C and G referred to the letters.       All living beings are composed of these letters arranged in side by side. These directories       There are 3 billion different combinations.

Gene therapy: Human gene   defective gene restored transfer of the disease or treatment   to be called gene therapy.
DNA   alphabet A, C, G and T consists of the letters. Array of letters, just   side by side to form a word, such as letters from the gene codes   are creating. Each of the three-letter code
represents the amino acid

In humans  The combination of 20 different amino acids in proteins, producing block. Different       combinations of the proteins, such as keratin or hemoglobin   put forms. As is known, the hair keratin, hemoglobin in the blood   constitutes the main protein.

People make the difference between   DNA
rate of 2 per thousand So even if the same genes at this rate, all the people   exactly resemble each other like twins.

One person every second of the day a letter of the gene map   While undergoing memorized, a hundred years to memorize all of the map    would be necessary.

Structure of the human gene şempanzeninkine   meets 98 percent.

0.0001 for each cell in the human    an inch in the structure of DNA nearly two meters in length compressed   per condition, and they all fit the size of a pin.

Letter of DNA code of genes in each cell have a full 3 billion. If the body   There are 100 trillion cells.

When DNA sequence in the body between the Sun World   can reach 600 times the distance. (About 160 billion miles.)
GENOME    Brought
Genome all the chromosomes in a cell with genetic information.

Gene map obtained from the cells as pure DNA molecule  to have all the nucleotides (up to 3.2 billion) order       DNA studies have also determined that kapsar.Böylece  molecular structure and functions of all genes will be identified.

Technology into the human body. I do not display normal resistance to accept       is a good idea. Maybe in the future will develop very different things. But in these days of       We live in the excitement of an invention.

The world's most advanced in the six countries working in 16 laboratories  Genome project was completed 1190 runs in pursuit of the specialist for 13 years  reported and remains secret to this project to result in human   decipher all the genes are described.

Think of a seed when sown in simple terms how a fidana  it will have bilincindesinizdir. Only this time the genetic traits  Upon deciphering all the details of seedlings   height, width, number of leaves, folds format       How many branches would be awarded, each able to know the number of sheets.

In addition,  identification of seeds and necessary directions you do not like it that you want to mutation,       as desired  yeşermesini    at  the opportunity to provide   will be available.

Described in   conditions on individuals in everyday life have the chance to apply    edebilsek, fakirle in a sense - rich, beauty and ugliness   to balance the principle of equality is based on the concepts of genetics and   be able to provide the emergence of justice.

Deep   astrological perspective on the implications of human impacts   in a sense, at least partially (may be completely disagree) düzenlenebilecektir.

Human   necessary for the intelligence of the mind, beauty, in a sense, the supply of  Consider brought a certain level, I wonder who did the wealth   eliminates How to obtain?

These genes make up a very important provision in the face of a problem    Mutated genes-in-the provision is required.

Divine    be able to decipher the order and order is a difficult thing to accomplish.
To be fair, however, to obtain the desired options, gaps, weaknesses  off-balanced, stable, make it seem impossible.  Even if the capacity of all problems that need access to Science  desired options in terms of time and economic conditions   is not easy to implement. In fact, as close to impossible.

Today   A period of six months for heart surgery, the citizens of a close  well I guess they expect  all of us       by a well-known phenomenon.

This   conditions, the desired qualities of a human being from the gene map   How long reach, supply / demand be met met   have a good think.

Everything Despite the development of the genome only, not properties of human   by the existence of energy fields and energy in its absolute   We can supply the gene to be deciphered.

This   tendency final point, all the qualifications and to the meaning and nothingness   the road is located.

Genome  evaluate progress on only human, only   "Bilinebilirliğe" restoring to ensure the triumph of popular science  Even if accepted as true at this stage can not waver.

Genome   this is not right.
Its purpose should not be this way.

If the   durulmaz on scientific reasons, is taken based on the universality of science   All the power of  universal    expenditure will need to be able to decipher the gene. The presence of fully   scientists' eyes to the sky to detect clusters of stars   perpendicular magnetic fields makes sense.

Science  One of the tasks to be open to new people all at   enthusiasm and effort of their application must be in.

Eternity means to reach to get rid of uncertainty.

Genetic Engineering

WHAT IS GENETIC ENGINEERING?
It is known gibigenler , An organism features carries information that determines the chemical.
Genes changed a organism gained with the desired properties.
Genetic engineering allows scientists to transfer genes from one organism to take a technology.
This technology, nucleic acid hybridization, recombinant DNA, PCR, cell culture and monoclonal antibody techniques contains.
The most successful DNA techniques and common olanrekombinant; using restriction enzymes "splicing genes also known as" cut and removed, and cut pieces of DNA ligase enzyme in the desired area by using the "vector" name The carrier bacteria plasmid contains the bonding process. More After bacterial plasmid into placement of normal cellular activity of recombinant DNA continue that is provided.
Today, the application of genetic engineering of plants and animals more good and healthy Food, more safe a clean environment and health The development of people presented.



HISTORY OF GENETIC ENGINEERING
1880 - Gregor Mendel plants work on modern transmitted by genes found attı.Karakteristik the basis of genetic traits.
1950 - Hershey and Chase, have proved to be the genetic material DNA of the cell.
1953 - Watson and Crick discovered DNA's double helix structure.
1955 - Arthur Kornberg and his colleagues have isolated the DNA polymerase.
1961 - Nirenberg and Matthaei discovered that the genetic code. Accordingly, based on a 3 amino acid codes.
1966 - B. Weiss, CCRichardson DNA ligase were isolated.
1968 - K. W. Wilcox, H. O. Smith, and T. J. Kelley first restriction endonucleases were isolated.
1972 - Paul Berg, the virus DNA was combined with the bacterium's DNA.
1973- The first Once a foreign gene (antibiotic resistant) was a transfer of bacteria.
1975 - Asilomar / USA at a scientific conference on the dangers of genetic engineering was the first time.
1976 - first to market genetically engineered products company Genentech is established.
1977 - Genetic manipulation applied to bacteria, which inhibit growth hormone production in humans.
1978 - Genetic fingerprinting keşfedildi.Bu way everyone Tanınabilecekti DNA.
1980 - (USA) "oil-eating baker called" applied to the genetic manipulation of organisms patented the first time.
1980 - the first time in mice gene transfer successfully applied to the treatment of disease transgenic mice model be used.
1980 - W. Gilbert, and F. Sanger method of DNA sequence received the Nobel Prize.
1982 - Industrial-scale product of the first genetic engineering of the insulin produced.
1983 - Barbara McClintock, "jumping genes," I discovered and won the Nobel Prize.
1987 - Anti-squash and tomatoes were patented.
1988 - Mammals on the first patent: Human cancer gene transferred to the "Harvard Mouse".
1990 - Greenpeace's first protest against the patenting of organisms.
1990 - "The Human Genome Project" officially started. Estimated cost: $ 3 billion.
1993 - Jerry Hall, the University of Washington cloning of human embryos world caused a worldwide scandal.
1994 - hereditary breast cancer gene was discovered.
1994 - Brazil nut gene to enhance the nutritional value of soybeans, has caused severe allergic reactions and project banned.
1997 - somatic cell cloned Dolly the sheep was born.
1997 - EU (European Aceefficacy for) applied to the genetic manipulation of food regulation against legalized.
1997 - the first time, genetic engineering applied to food was allowed in the EU: rapeseed oil.
1999 - United Nations (UN Organization) 's applied to the genetic manipulation of organisms due to America's failed trade, biological safety-related decision.
1999 - In humans, containing 33.4 million bp sequence of chromosome No. 22 was completed.
2000 - President Clinton and leaders of the Human Genome Project, human genome DNA sequence, "working draft" of the declared completed.

WHAT ARE THE BENEFITS?

Benefits of medicine
· Animal People For Organ Donor Must: animal to human organ transplantation "xerotransplantasyon" denir.Genetik engineering of pigs for human organs appropriate studies on these reactions in terms of yapıyorlar.Reddetme successfully taken control of the time these pigs economic will be organ donors.
· Gene Therapy Against Brain tumor: The aim of gene therapy "suicide gene" öldürmektir.Bu kind of tumor cells using genes known as tumor cells bearing the shape of the genes into a cell poison drug kills the tumor.
· Hepatitis B: Hepatitis B virus blood through bulaşır.Örneğin small wounds or protection patients with chronic hepatitis B vaccine in 1982 without any sexual contact with the blood of ile.İlk very Processes complex derived from edilmişti.1986 'Since this vaccine, easy GM yeast cells are manufactured using a processle.

· Bubble Boy Bubble Boy, as a result of gene mutation ADA-Adenosine also caused by a lack of ***** z is not a disease and cause immune system cells in patients treated olur.Hastalığın ADA and bone marrow transplant in 1990, copied from the ADA enzyme inactivated virus verildi.Virüs yapılmaktaydı.Ancak with the patient's T-cells to settle, çoğaldı.Bu treatment was successful.


Account different Actions of Genetic Engineering: The murder cases, forensic (and criminals follow the law last used in the technical) teams, offense mahalindeki hair, Semen, blood, nail samples RFLP'leri review (Restriction Fragment Length polymorphisms) and compare different the ones used for the determination of paternity detected by RFLP analysis ederler.Aynı time.

Nutrition Benefits
· Position food: GM food is produced. Pumpkin, yeast, potato, soybean, tomato, tomatoes and strawberries are very sensitive to cold mısır.Örneğin Sea fish such as the language of plants isolated from the "anti-freeze" gene aktarıldı.Ayrıca toxin gene kills bacteria and insects in corn and cotton verildi.Gerçekte, 60% of genetic engineering techniques are used in processed foods.
· Decay last-Anti Squash Tomatoes: tomatoes sold in many green and hard to be removed from the field. This pressure-sensitive products such as ethylene deliveries kolaylaştırmaktadır.Satılmadan artificial hormone olgunlaştırılmaktadır.Doğada this matter before the tomatoes are ripe tomatoes decay of the cell wall, squash and tomatoes olmaktadır.Anti cause these hormone genes inactivated the anti-squash and tomatoes in addition to other getirilmiştir.Buna species do not contain genes.
Against Rice · blindness: the only way millions of people in developing countries nutrition because of vitamin çekmektedir.Taze rice instead of fruits, vitamin A deficiency is the main besindir.Pirinç içermez.Bu vitamin deficiency in children is one of the most common diseases that cause blindness açar.Genetik engineering using genetic material to increase the nutritional value of rice, so rice değiştirilmektedir.Bu more vitamin A is a pioneer.

· Low Fat Potato chips: Chips and potatoes are the bodies contain too much fat. Therefore, the situation is now quite kolarili yiyeceklerdir.Bu potato starch değişmiştir.Bilimadamları gene increases the production of potatoes in a change to a successful aktarmışlardır.Bu kızartıldıkları time to do more starchy and less are fat.

Agriculture and Environmental Benefits
First, Plant: Genetic engineering applied to the first plant, the production of petunia was fighting against diseases.
· Traditional crossing Development: Çaprazlaşmayla species barrier-maz.Genetik engineering never surpassed transferred genes will make crossing the crossing gerçekleştirir.Aynı gene transfer between species, in nature, combining the activity of DNA to form DNA of offspring of parents to get along sağlar.Genetik engineering new genes in host cells can easily pass without any basic reference.

Developed Strategies Against · tree worms: worms corn plant tree crops kemirerek inside the cells of the corn crop with the help of 7% of the pesticide-producing gene engineering yokeder.Genetik nakledilir.Dolayısıyla poisoned tree worms, are eliminated.

· Blue Jean And Genetic Engineering: the past, the textile industry, jeans to be washed before painting whiteners used too much water and energy needed duyuluyordu.Bugün using GM bacteria to neutralize the bleaching edilir.Böylece water, energy and time by 10% saving As provided in environment will be protected.

Benefits of Microorganisms
Anti-Freeze Gene: Scientists in Canada tongue Sea fish 'anti-freeze "gene from transplanted salmon balığına ettiler.Bu kültürasyonu could be so cold.
· Genes kullanıldı.Ayrıca reducing fat content in beef meat, cattle against the disease by transferring a gene-sparing antibody was achieved using the exercise to.
Genetic engineering using genes from human and sheep imported sheep's milk used in the treatment of lung cancer was achieved in the production of alpha-1 antitrypsin.
· Four-legged and non-chicken wings were produced.
· Spider silk in goat's milk was produced by transferring genes.

WHAT ARE THE DANGERS?

Health Hazards
· Long-Term Safe No Testing: Genetic engineering; organisms never eat human food supply by using the non-material natural değiştirir.Uzun-term tests, one without the basic nutrients of these foods does not know whether it is safe.
· Toxins: Genetic engineering can cause mutations in organisms that unexpected mutations, high levels of toxins and develop new foods.
· Allergic Reactions: Genetically engineered foods can create an unprecedented and unknown allergens.
Value of Nutrient Reduction ·: Transgenic Food counterfeit freshness yöneltebilirler.Lezzetli consumers looking in the wrong direction, a bright red color genetically modified tomatoes and nutritional value may be less than a few weeks.
· Antibiotic Resistant Bacteria: Genetic engineering of antibiotic-resistant GM seeds genleriGM uses to mark the cells shows the genes are resistant to antibiotics carries the genes of a bacteria that may have been infected with us.
· Track Follow-up Problems that can not be: without the tagging to investigate the origin of the problem to find all types of community health organizations kalıyorlar powerless.
· Side Effects May Be Deadly: 37 people killed and 1500 people suffered partial paralysis syndrome linked to tryptophan made by bacteria and GM temporarily because of the more than 5,000 people injured.

Environmental Hazards
Increasing the Use of herbicides ·: Scientists have made genetic mühendisliğince herbicide-resistant plants, the presence of herbicide use saptamışlardır.Çiftçiler increase the amount of seeds they know can tolerate herbicides, use them generously.
· More Very Pesticide: GM seeds are often own pestisitlerini do and EPA (Environment Protection Authority) as a pesticide by the food and our fields sınıflandırılabilirler.Bu strategy will more than ever pesticide.
· Ecology Loss Can See: GM organisms in food chain in the effect of damaging the local ecology of natural flora organisms verebilir.Yeni relatives can make a successful race, and may cause changes in the environment never before seen.
· Gene may disappear Population: Once the GM organisms, viruses and bacteria that is released to the environment to bring them back together again possible değildir.Kimyasal or negative effects of nuclear controlled ***** syondan geridönüşümsüzdür different.

Agricultural Hazards
Widespread famine · Seed: Genetic engineers to provide GM seeds patentleyerek niyetindeler.Buna profit by a farmer when all the seeds of the GM seed axis olacaktır.Sonuçta have the same genetic structure of these special seeds to attack fungi, viruses or other harmful insects will develop widespread seed shortage .
• All food stocks Threat Eder: Insects, birds and wind genetically modified seeds mühendisliğince pollen from neighboring fields or natural seeds of plants and wild relatives taşıyabilir.Transgenik far pollen can çaprazlaşması.


Besides these, there are some doubts at the root of this technology:

· A technique used to insert DNA fragmentini sensitive, unreliable and uncertain.
· Sting operation known effect on the host cell biotechnology.
· Environmental impact GM organisms known.
· Eating GM foods will not be known domain.
Do not have a complete idea about what can happen · Risk.
· Disaster If you do not have to be compensation.
· This negative results if you have one-to-who legally responsible not even retain the exact not.

After all "Is genetic engineering safe?" I can think of a question:
Security, experience, know-how in the case of gelir.Genetik engineering, security, sufficient to justify the claim that the time required for the accumulation of experience and there is discussion of the community.